According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. On the other hand, cells that were silent during the behavioral task did not show the increase in frequency. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. 77. Inasmuch as all this relevant knowledge is entirely ignored, we hope the present review may help in rescuing it (4). Further developments in neurobiological research, including lesion and brain imaging studies, have established a clearer view of the functional neuroanatomy of REM sleep and dreaming. What is the Stern W, Forbes WN, Morgane PJ. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. Narcolepsy. WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. The form and content of dreams is not random but organized and selective: during dreaming, the brain constructs a complex model of the world in which certain types of elements, when compared to waking life, are Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. 5. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Ergebn. WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. 48. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. Vertes RP, Kocsis B. Brainstem-diencephalo-septohippocampal systems controlling the theta rhythm of the hippocampus. Some presently available explanations seem science fiction, rather than true science. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Front Neurol. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Oswald I. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Foulkes D. Children's dreams. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). Rerum Natura, I et II. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. 107. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. Erlbaum 1992. No PGO potentials have been found in rats (70). Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. Dement WC. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. The Psychology of Dreaming. Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. 128. 55. These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. Chase MH, Morales FR. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). When they sleep, fishes keep quiet, with no apparent movements, and then they can be easily fished with a hand.". Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. 10. In: M. C. Hepp-Reymond & G. Marini (eds.) 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